In recent decades, research has significantly advanced our understanding of how people learn most effectively. Yet in practice, our learning approaches have remained largely unchanged.
Classroom learning typically still takes the form of lectures with limited active learning. Study consists of passive tactics such as highlighting and reviewing notes; shown to be largely ineffective. Lifelong learners may devour books, only to forget most of what they’ve read, even after revisiting the material.
If you’ve noticed this gap, you’re not alone—and you’re in the right place. This article explores most effective learning strategies for long-term retention and recall. These techniques are backed by studies involving medical, safety, and military training as well as classroom learning.
Previewing & Pretesting
First, we have previewing and pretesting. Previewing involves engaging with an overview of the content you are about to learn. This could come from a summary of the content, an outline, or even images related to the text [5]. This strategy can aid learners in identifying or predicting main ideas and connecting supporting ideas.
Pretesting is typically more counterintuitive to learners as it is exactly what it sounds like. Testing yourself on subject matter you have yet to learn [12]. Nevertheless multiple studies support this method:
“These pretests are shown to lead to better learning even when learners take time out of studying the correct information to take a pretest in which they are almost guaranteed to be wrong” (Rea, Wang, Muenks, & Yan, 2022).
Yes, even if you are not able to correctly answer the pretest questions, it still is proven to be effective. It is proposed that the act of organizing and integrating information into broader knowledge networks is helpful even if there is limited understanding of the material [3].
Active Learning
Next, we have active learning. Think flashcards, free recall, low and no stakes testing. These approaches require the learner to engage in deep thinking and correct their misconceptions with feedback, ultimately strengthening neural connections.
Flashcards are a common and recommended technique. The primary benefit is through the retrieval practice of continuingly reviewing the information. Contrary to common belief, it is not recommended to stop reviewing flashcards you recalled correctly as doing so has been shown to lead to diminished long-term retention [10]. An added benefit of flashcards use is its metacognitive nature; by reviewing flashcards learners are able to identify areas that require additional study.
No stakes / low stakes testing overlaps with flashcards, though while flashcards are often associated with defining or recalling key concepts or terms, self-testing can be thought of as asking oneself deeper questions. The benefits of self-quizzing have been proven time and time again [9]; making it important to stop viewing testing solely as a way to prove knowledge acquisition and start recognizing it as a powerful tool for promoting learning.
Free recall is another active learning technique, where the learner writes down everything they remember about a topic or simply explains the topic to oneself or someone else. Just be sure to not use notes!
Lastly, reviewing errors and misconceptions is a powerful way for reaching deeper learning of the material. This requires those engaging with this approach to consider what went wrong in their understanding of the content, typically leading them to better apply the concepts to new situations in the future [4].
Spaced Repetition
Spaced repetition, also referred to as distributed practice, is the approach of repeating study sessions spaced out over time. The benefits of spaced repetition for long-term retention have been demonstrated across various materials and settings, including verbal learning tasks like word lists, vocabulary definitions, and history facts, as well as skills training [10]. The typical study approach is to compare groups of students who learned material in one long session, compared to groups that learned the material in the same amount of time, except spaced over multiple sessions. The latter approach frequently shows meaningful improvement in long-term retention.
Interleaving
Finally, we have interleaving, one of the least understood learning strategies. It is the approach of mixing adjacent examples, topics, and concepts. Not to be confused with mixing unrelated subjects, which is not a useful studying approach since it requires task switching. A simple example is a baseball player practicing hitting fastballs, curveballs and sliders all in one batting practice instead trying to master one before moving on to the other. An academic example comes from a 2007 study by Rohrer and Taylor [11] where students were asked to calculate the volume of four solid three-dimensional shapes. One group took a blocked approach, practicing the volume of one type of solid per session, while the other group practice all four types in each session. The block group initially achieved higher scores, however, the final test results saw the interleaving group calculate the volume correctly 63% of the time versus only 20% for the block group [10]. One may wonder why this strategy is so effective, Kang (2016) offers the following quote:
“it is not sufficient to learn how to execute a strategy; one must also know when a particular strategy is appropriate” Kang (2016) (p. 86).
In Closing
Now that you understand the key strategies for improving long-term retention you will be sure to implement them, right? Well, research shows even when students understand what are effective learning strategies, they still revert back to comfortable methods such as cramming, re-reading, and reviewing notes. It is proposed that students anticipate the time needed for creating flashcards and self-tests is too great compared to their usual methods. Additionally, there is thought that anxiety around testing may cause some students to avoid the technique and revert back to less helpful methods.
If you would like to set yourself up for success, consider approaches that reduce this friction. For example, reduce the time needed for creating flashcards by finding pre-created flashcards. Quizlet has user generated flashcards ready for you to review on a variety of sources; Polym has expertly created audio flashcards and other active learning techniques for learners on the go. Anki can help schedule flashcard reviews at spaced intervals; Polym can do the same for audio learning.
Finally, while it takes effort, continually engaging in active learning will reduce anxiety around self-testing, ultimately becoming a critical part of your learning process.
References
1. DeLotell, P. J., Millam, L. A., & Reinhardt, M. M. (2010). The use of deep learning strategies in online business courses to impact student retention. American Journal of Business Education, 3(12), 49–56.
2. Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2013). Improving students’ learning with effective learning techniques: Promising directions from cognitive and educational psychology. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14(1), 4–58. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100612453266
3. Fiorella, L., & Mayer, R. E. (2016). Eight ways to promote generative learning. Educational Psychology Review, 28(4), 717–741. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-015-9348-9
4. Hattie, J. A. C., & Donoghue, G. M. (2016). Learning strategies: A synthesis and conceptual model. NPJ Science of Learning, 1, Article 16013. https://doi.org/10.1038/npjscilearn.2016.13
5. Huang, H.-T. D. (2009). Previewing and EFL reading comprehension. The Journal of Asia TEFL, 6(1), 57–84.
6. Kang, S. H. K. (2016). The benefits of interleaved practice for learning. In J. C. Horvath, J. Lodge, & J. A. C. Hattie (Eds.).
7. Karpicke, J. D. (2012). Retrieval-based learning: Active retrieval promotes meaningful learning. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21(3), 157–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721412443552
8. McKeachie, W. J., Pintrich, P. R., & Lin, Y. G. (1984, August). Teaching learning strategies. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Association, Toronto, Canada. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED255141)
9. Rea, S. D., Wang, L., Muenks, K., & Yan, V. X. (2022). Students can (mostly) recognize effective learning, so why do they not do it? Journal of Intelligence, 10(4), 127. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence10040127
10. Roediger, H. L., III, Nestojko, J. F., & Smith, N. S. (2019). Strategies to improve learning and retention during training. In Human Performance Optimization (pp. 302–317). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190455132.003.0014
11. Rohrer, D., Taylor, K., & Sholar, B. (2010). Tests enhance the transfer of learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 36(1), 233–239. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017678
12. Sana, F. (2023, August 29). Test first, learn later: The power of pretesting to enhance learning. Featured Content – Psychonomic Society. https://featuredcontent.psychonomic.org/test-first-learn-later-the-power-of-pretesting-to-enhance-learning
13. Shi, H. (2017). Learning strategies and classification in education. Institute for Learning Styles Journal, 1, 24–36.
14. Weinstein, Y., Nunes, L. D., & Karpicke, J. D. (2016). The use of flashcards in an introduction to psychology class. Journal of Cognitive Education and Psychology, 15(2), 180–195.
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